Convention on Biological Diversity: Safeguarding Global Biodiversity

Biodiversity – the variety of life on Earth – underpins everything from the food we eat to the medicines we use and the ecosystems that regulate our climate. Yet by the late 20th century, habitat destruction, pollution, and overexploitation were driving species to extinction at an alarming rate. In response, the international community came together at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro to adopt the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This landmark treaty became the first global agreement to treat biodiversity conservation as a shared responsibility of all nations – covering ecosystems, species, and genetic resources under one legally binding framework.

Goals and objectives of the CBD 🔗

The Convention on Biological Diversity rests on three interconnected objectives, each addressing a different dimension of how the world relates to its biological wealth.

Conservation of biological diversity 🔗

The first and most fundamental goal of the CBD is to protect ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity. This means preserving sensitive ecosystems, restoring degraded habitats, and enacting laws that safeguard endangered plants and animals. The Convention recognized, for the first time in international law, that biodiversity conservation is a common concern of humankind and an essential part of the development process. Under this goal, countries are required to identify and monitor the components of biodiversity within their borders, establish protected areas, and manage biological resources to prevent further loss.

Sustainable use of its components 🔗

While the CBD calls for protection, it also acknowledges that biological resources must be used to meet human needs. The key, however, is that this use must not deplete or permanently damage biodiversity for future generations. Countries are expected to integrate conservation considerations into national decision-making across sectors like agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. They must also adopt measures to minimise adverse impacts on biodiversity from resource use and protect customary use of biological resources by indigenous and local communities, as long as those practices are compatible with conservation goals.

Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources 🔗

The third objective addresses a critical equity issue. Much of the world’s genetic wealth – plants, animals, and microorganisms with potential commercial value – is concentrated in developing countries. Yet historically, the benefits derived from these resources (through pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and biotechnology) flowed disproportionately to developed nations and corporations. The CBD established the principle that benefits arising from the use of genetic resources must be shared fairly, including through appropriate access arrangements, technology transfer, and financial mechanisms. This objective later became the foundation for the Nagoya Protocol.

Implementation and global cooperation 🔗

A treaty is only as effective as its implementation mechanisms. The CBD set up a comprehensive governance structure to translate its objectives into action at the national and international levels.

The Conference of the Parties (COP) 🔗

The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme governing body of the Convention. It brings together all ratifying governments – currently over 196 Parties – to review progress, set priorities, and commit to work plans. COP meetings are held every two years and have been instrumental in shaping the direction of global biodiversity policy. For instance, COP 10 in Nagoya, Japan (2010) led to the adoption of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and its 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets. More recently, COP 15 in Montreal (2022) produced the historic Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, which set the ambitious target of protecting 30% of the planet’s land and oceans by 2030.

National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) 🔗

NBSAPs are the primary instruments for implementing the Convention at the national level. Each Party is required to develop a national strategy that outlines how it will conserve biodiversity, use biological resources sustainably, and share benefits equitably. Over 190 countries have now developed these plans, making the CBD one of the most widely implemented environmental agreements in history. Countries are also required to submit periodic national reports to the COP detailing the measures they have taken and their effectiveness.

Supplementary protocols 🔗

To address specific gaps, the CBD has given rise to two supplementary agreements. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000) regulates the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology. The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (2010) creates a legally binding framework for the third objective of the Convention – ensuring that benefits from genetic resource utilization are shared fairly. These protocols strengthen the CBD by providing detailed rules for areas where the original Convention text was broad.

Linkages with intellectual property and access to resources 🔗

One of the most debated aspects of the CBD concerns the intersection of biodiversity, genetic resources, intellectual property rights, and global trade. This is where the Convention’s third objective comes directly into play.

Access and benefit sharing (ABS) 🔗

Under Article 15 of the Convention, countries have sovereign rights over their natural resources. This means they can determine the conditions under which others may access their genetic resources. Access is subject to prior informed consent (PIC) from the provider country, and the terms of access must be established through mutually agreed terms (MAT). In return, benefits – whether monetary (royalties, licence fees) or non-monetary (technology transfer, capacity building) – must be shared equitably with the provider country and relevant communities.

The Nagoya Protocol, adopted in 2010 and entering into force in 2014, operationalised these ABS provisions. It established compliance measures requiring user countries to ensure that genetic resources utilised within their jurisdictions have been accessed lawfully. Countries must designate checkpoints to monitor the use of genetic resources at various stages – from research and development through to commercialisation. As of 2025, the Nagoya Protocol has been ratified by over 140 parties.

The biopiracy problem 🔗

Biopiracy refers to the appropriation of genetic resources or traditional knowledge from developing countries without proper consent or benefit-sharing arrangements. For decades, corporations and researchers from developed nations extracted valuable biological materials – from medicinal plants to microorganisms – and patented products derived from them, while the source countries and indigenous communities received little or nothing in return.

The CBD and Nagoya Protocol were designed directly to combat this problem. Developing countries, particularly mega-diverse nations in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, pushed strongly during negotiations for robust compliance provisions and the inclusion of derivatives (not just raw genetic material) in the ABS framework. A well-known case involves the San people of southern Africa, whose traditional knowledge of the Hoodia plant’s appetite-suppressing properties was commercially exploited before international protests led to benefit-sharing arrangements.

Intellectual property tensions 🔗

The relationship between the CBD and intellectual property regimes – particularly the WTO’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) – has been contentious. Developing countries have long advocated for patent applicants to disclose the origin of any genetic resource or traditional knowledge used in their inventions. This would create a direct link between the patent system and the CBD’s ABS requirements. While some progress has been made at forums like the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), this issue remains under active negotiation and continues to be a significant point of tension between the Global North and Global South.

CBD’s ecosystem approach 🔗

Earlier conservation strategies often focused narrowly on individual species or isolated habitats. The CBD introduced a fundamentally different way of thinking about biodiversity protection – one that treats ecosystems as integrated, dynamic systems rather than collections of parts.

What is the ecosystem approach? 🔗

The ecosystem approach is defined by the CBD as a strategy for the integrated management of land, water, and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Adopted as the primary framework for action under the Convention at COP 2 in Jakarta (1995), it was further elaborated at COP 5 with 12 guiding principles and operational guidelines.

At its core, the ecosystem approach recognises that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral part of most ecosystems – not separate from them. It calls for management decisions to be made at the appropriate scale, informed by the best available science, and responsive to the complex, non-linear dynamics of ecological systems. Key elements include decentralised decision-making, the involvement of all relevant stakeholders (especially indigenous and local communities), and integration of economic values of ecosystem goods and services into national planning and policy.

The precautionary principle 🔗

The precautionary principle is closely linked to the ecosystem approach and serves as a fundamental guiding concept under the CBD. It states that where there is a threat of significant biodiversity loss, the absence of full scientific certainty should not be a reason for delaying protective measures. This principle is especially important given the complexity of ecosystems and the fact that the consequences of biodiversity loss are often irreversible.

The precautionary principle has been applied across several CBD work programmes, including biosafety (through the Cartagena Protocol, which allows countries to restrict imports of genetically modified organisms even without conclusive evidence of harm), invasive alien species management, and marine and coastal biodiversity protection.

Adaptive management 🔗

Because ecosystems are complex and our understanding of them is always incomplete, the CBD promotes adaptive management – a flexible, learning-based approach to conservation. Rather than relying on fixed management plans, adaptive management involves continuous monitoring, evaluation of outcomes, and adjustment of strategies based on new information and experience. This “learning by doing” approach recognises that ecosystem processes are often non-linear, outcomes are unpredictable, and time-lags between actions and their effects are common.

Integrating the ecosystem approach across sectors 🔗

One of the most important aspects of the CBD’s ecosystem approach is its application across different sectors and biomes. The Convention’s thematic programmes cover marine and coastal biodiversity, forests, agricultural biodiversity, inland waters, mountain ecosystems, and dry and sub-humid lands. In each of these areas, the ecosystem approach calls for breaking down sectoral silos and managing resources holistically. Concepts like nature-based solutions and ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly being applied to address challenges ranging from climate change adaptation to urban planning and water management.

Challenges and the road ahead 🔗

Despite its near-universal ratification and comprehensive framework, the CBD has faced significant implementation challenges. The Aichi Biodiversity Targets set for 2020 were largely unmet, highlighting the gap between ambition and action. Funding shortfalls, weak enforcement mechanisms, lack of political will, and the continued prioritisation of short-term economic interests over long-term ecological sustainability remain persistent obstacles.

The adoption of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework in December 2022 represents a renewed attempt to galvanise global action. Its flagship “30×30” target – protecting 30% of the planet’s land and sea areas by 2030 – along with goals on reducing harmful subsidies, restoring degraded ecosystems, and mobilising financial resources, has been called a “Paris moment” for biodiversity. However, delivering on these commitments will require unprecedented levels of investment, cooperation, and integration of biodiversity considerations into all areas of economic and social policy.

The Convention on Biological Diversity remains humanity’s most comprehensive attempt to collectively safeguard the web of life. Its success or failure will significantly shape the kind of planet future generations inherit.

What do you think? Can international treaties like the CBD truly reverse biodiversity loss when economic incentives often push in the opposite direction? And how should the balance between protecting genetic resources and enabling scientific research be managed more effectively?

References

1. https://www.britannica.com/event/Convention-on-Biological-Diversity
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity
3. https://www.cbd.int/access-benefit-sharing
4. https://enb.iisd.org/negotiations/convention-biological-diversity-cbd
5. https://instituteofsustainabilitystudies.com/insights/lexicon/what-is-the-convention-on-biological-diversity-cbd/
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Protocol
7. https://www.southcentre.int/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Ev_130201_GNjar1.pdf
8. https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/ea-text-en.pdf
9. https://www.cbd.int/undb/media/factsheets/undb-factsheets-en-web.pdf