Key International Agreements for Biodiversity Conservation

Biodiversity – the variety of all living organisms on Earth – is under pressure like never before. Over the past two centuries, nations have gradually recognized that protecting biodiversity is not something any single country can do alone. From early treaties safeguarding migratory fish to sweeping global frameworks tackling ecosystem collapse, international agreements have become the backbone of conservation efforts worldwide. Here’s a look at the key agreements that have shaped how the world protects its natural heritage.

Early biodiversity treaties: where it all began 🔗

International cooperation for biodiversity didn’t start with modern environmentalism. It began with practical concerns about shared natural resources – particularly species that crossed political borders. As far back as the 18th century, European nations began negotiating bilateral agreements to manage migratory fish populations that moved between territorial waters. These early deals were limited in scope, focused mainly on preventing the overexploitation of commercially valuable species like salmon and sturgeon.

The 1900 Convention for wildlife in Africa 🔗

A major step forward came in 1900 with the Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa. Drafted by European colonial powers, this agreement aimed to regulate hunting and protect certain species across African territories. While its colonial origins are problematic by today’s standards, the convention established important precedents – it was one of the first comprehensive international wildlife protection agreements, and it introduced the idea that governments should cooperate to manage wildlife beyond their own borders.

These early treaties shared several characteristics. They were usually bilateral (between two nations), focused on species with economic value, and framed conservation mainly as preventing overexploitation rather than protecting ecosystems as a whole. Still, they laid the groundwork for the more ambitious agreements that would follow in the 20th century.

The Stockholm Conference (1972): a turning point 🔗

The 1970s marked a dramatic shift in how the world thought about environmental protection. The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden, was the first major international conference to put the environment squarely on the global agenda. Representatives from 113 nations and over 400 non-governmental organizations came together over 11 days in June 1972.

The conference produced a Declaration containing 26 principles for sound environmental management, along with an Action Plan with 109 recommendations. The Stockholm Declaration placed environmental issues at the forefront of international concerns and, crucially, initiated a dialogue between industrialized and developing countries about the connections between economic growth, pollution, and human well-being.

The birth of UNEP 🔗

One of the most significant outcomes of the Stockholm Conference was the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in December 1972. UNEP was tasked with coordinating global environmental efforts and supporting countries – particularly developing nations – in their environmental protection initiatives. Its headquarters were set up in Nairobi, Kenya, making it the first UN agency based in the Global South.

The Stockholm Conference also inspired India’s Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to highlight a connection that remains central to conservation debates today: the link between poverty and environmental degradation. Her argument – that poverty is itself a major driver of ecological destruction – helped shape the conversation around why development and conservation cannot be separated.

Major modern agreements of the 1970s 🔗

The momentum generated by the Stockholm Conference led to a wave of important environmental treaties during the 1970s. Several of these remain active and influential today.

CITES (1973) 🔗

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was adopted in 1973 and entered into force in 1975. It regulates the international trade in wildlife species that are endangered or could become endangered if their exploitation is not controlled. CITES works through a system of permits and certificates required for the import and export of listed species. Today, it covers over 38,000 species of animals and plants, making it one of the most widely implemented conservation agreements in the world.

The World Heritage Convention (1972) 🔗

Also emerging from this era was the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, adopted in 1972 and entering into force in 1975. This convention takes a unique approach to conservation by protecting entire ecosystems and landscapes of outstanding universal value. Sites like the Galápagos Islands, the Great Barrier Reef, and parts of the Amazon rainforest receive international protection under this framework. The underlying principle is that some places are so important for global biodiversity that their preservation is a shared international responsibility.

The Convention on Migratory Species (1979) 🔗

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, was adopted in 1979. The treaty recognizes that migratory species are vulnerable to threats across borders – habitat loss in breeding areas, overhunting along migration routes, and degradation of feeding grounds. CMS brings together the states through which migratory animals pass and provides a legal foundation for coordinated conservation across entire migratory ranges.

Since its establishment, CMS has grown from 29 signatories to over 130 member states and has produced multiple species-specific agreements – from protecting albatrosses to conserving bats across Europe. It is the only multilateral environmental agreement focused broadly on migratory species across different taxonomic groups.

The Rio Earth Summit (1992): a new era of biodiversity governance 🔗

If the Stockholm Conference opened the door, the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development – better known as the Rio Earth Summit – threw it wide open. Held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, this gathering of world leaders, scientists, and civil society fundamentally transformed international biodiversity governance.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 🔗

The most important biodiversity outcome of the Rio Summit was the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Unlike earlier treaties that focused on specific species or habitats, the CBD addresses biodiversity at all levels: genetic, species, and ecosystem. It has been ratified by 196 nations, making it one of the most widely supported international environmental treaties. The United States remains the only UN member state that has not ratified it.

The CBD has three core objectives: conserving biological diversity, promoting the sustainable use of its components, and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. It was the first treaty in international law to recognize biodiversity conservation as a common concern of humankind.

Supplementary protocols to the CBD 🔗

Two supplementary protocols have strengthened the CBD over time. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (adopted in 2000) governs the movement of living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology between countries. The Nagoya Protocol (adopted in 2010, entered into force in 2014) provides a transparent legal framework for the fair sharing of benefits from the use of genetic resources – addressing issues like biopiracy, where genetic material from biodiversity-rich developing countries is exploited without fair compensation.

Other Rio outcomes 🔗

The Rio Summit didn’t stop at the CBD. It also produced the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Together with the CBD, these are known as the three “Rio Conventions,” and they remain the most important international frameworks addressing interconnected challenges of biodiversity loss, climate change, and land degradation.

From Aichi to Kunming-Montreal: setting global targets 🔗

Establishing the CBD was one thing; translating its goals into measurable action has been another challenge entirely. In 2010, parties to the CBD adopted the Aichi Biodiversity Targets – a set of 20 goals for 2011-2020. However, by the end of that decade, none of the Aichi targets were fully achieved, and only six were partially met.

This shortfall led to the landmark Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), adopted at COP15 in December 2022 in Montreal. The GBF includes 4 long-term goals for 2050 and 23 action-oriented targets for 2030. Its most prominent target – often called “30 by 30” – calls for protecting 30 percent of the Earth’s land and ocean areas by 2030 and restoring 30 percent of degraded ecosystems.

The GBF also addressed a persistent sticking point in biodiversity negotiations: finance. It called for increasing international financial flows from developed to developing countries to at least $30 billion annually, and required companies and financial institutions to transparently disclose their biodiversity-related risks and impacts.

The role of the United Nations and UNEP 🔗

The United Nations system has been the primary architect and facilitator of international biodiversity governance. From the Stockholm Conference to the Kunming-Montreal Framework, the UN has provided the platforms, institutions, and mechanisms that make global cooperation on biodiversity possible.

UNEP’s ongoing role 🔗

UNEP serves as the coordinating body for environmental action across the UN system. It hosts the secretariats of multiple multilateral environmental agreements, including the CBD and CMS. UNEP’s work spans policy guidance, scientific assessments, technical support to developing countries, and public awareness campaigns. Over the years, it has been instrumental in driving major agreements like the Montreal Protocol on ozone depletion and the Paris Agreement on climate change – both of which have significant implications for biodiversity.

The role of IPBES 🔗

In 2012, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) was established to strengthen the connection between science and policy on biodiversity issues. Often described as the biodiversity equivalent of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), IPBES develops evidence-based assessments and draws on both scientific and indigenous knowledge. Its landmark 2019 Global Assessment warned that around one million species face extinction – a finding that galvanized support for the Kunming-Montreal Framework.

Looking ahead: COP17 and beyond 🔗

The work continues. Negotiations under the CBD are now focused on implementing the Kunming-Montreal Framework, with countries expected to submit updated National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs). The upcoming COP17, scheduled for 2026 in Armenia, will be a crucial test of whether nations are translating commitments into real action on the ground.

Why international agreements matter for biodiversity 🔗

Biodiversity doesn’t respect borders. Migratory birds, ocean currents, deforestation, and climate change are all transboundary issues that no single government can address alone. International agreements create the legal frameworks, funding mechanisms, and scientific cooperation needed to tackle these challenges collectively.

That said, the track record is mixed. The failure to meet the Aichi targets showed that signing agreements is easier than implementing them. Funding gaps, enforcement challenges, and competing economic priorities continue to hamper progress. The success of the Kunming-Montreal Framework – and indeed the entire international biodiversity regime – will ultimately depend on whether countries follow through with national-level action backed by adequate resources.

What do you think? With the “30 by 30” target calling for protection of nearly a third of the planet by 2030, do you believe countries will actually deliver on their commitments – and what would it take to make these international agreements more effective on the ground?

References

1. https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Conference-on-the-Human-Environment
2. https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/stockholm1972
3. https://www.unep.org/
4. https://cites.org/eng/news/sundry/2011/20110304_CITES_CMS.shtml
5. https://whc.unesco.org/en/glossary/220
6. https://enb.iisd.org/negotiations/convention-conservation-migratory-species-wild-animals-cms
7. https://www.un.org/en/observances/biological-diversity-day/convention
8. https://biodiversity.europa.eu/policy/biodiversity-policies-at-the-global-level
9. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/cop15-ends-landmark-biodiversity-agreement